Who’s Whispering? Early Evidence Regarding Management as a
Possible Source of “Whisper” Forecasts of Earnings
Karen Teitel*
Assistant Professor of Accounting
College of the Holy Cross
One College Street
Worcester, MA 01610‐2395
508 793 2679
[email protected]
Susan Machuga
Assistant Professor of Accounting
University of Hartford
Barney School of Business
200 Bloomfield Avenue
Hartford, CT 06117
860 871 8124
[email protected]
Ray Pfeiffer
Professor
Department of Accounting and Information Systems
Isenberg School of Management
University of Massachusetts
Amherst, Massachusetts 01003
413 545 5653
[email protected]
Research Fellow
Financial Accounting Standards Board
401 Merritt 7
Norwalk, CT 06856
September 2008
We acknowledge helpful comments from participants in the University of Connecticut’s
Accounting Research Workshop. We are also grateful to Thomson Financial for providing IBES
earnings forecast data at an academic rate. Expressions of individual views of members of the
FASB and their staffs are encouraged. The views expressed in this article are those of Dr.
Pfeiffer and his co‐authors. Official positions of the FASB on accounting matters are determined
only after extensive due process and deliberation.
*Contact author.
Who’s Whispering? Early Evidence Regarding Management as a
Possible Source of “Whisper” Forecasts of Earnings
SYNOPSIS
“Whisper numbers” have attracted both popular press and academic interest since the first
paper published on this topic by Bagnoli at al. (1999)where they find that whisper forecasts are
more accurate and more closely associated with investors’ expectations than are financial
analysts’ forecasts. Although the exact source of whisper forecasts is not known, we theorize
that managers are among the (anonymous) providers of whispers. To test this conjecture, we
examine the probabilities of management and whisper forecasts occurring given the
juxtaposition of the initial analysts’ forecasts relative to actual earnings. We find that when
analysts’ forecasts are optimistic, management forecasts are statistically more likely to occur;
however, when analysts’ forecasts are pessimistic, whisper forecasts are more likely to occur.
We also find that in circumstances where management is most likely to choose to communicate
via whispers, whisper forecasts are more accurate, consistent with management being the
source of the whispers.
Key words: Accounting, earnings‐per‐share; whisper forecasts; analysts’ forecasts; management
forecasts; analysts’ revisions; forecast accuracy; information content; forecast optimism; forecast
pessimism.
Who’s Whispering? Early Evidence Regarding Management as a
Possible Source of “Whisper” Forecasts of Earnings
I. INTRODUCTION
“Whisper numbers” have attracted both popular press and academic interest since the
first paper published on this topic by Bagnoli at al. in 1999. They find that whisper forecasts are
more accurate and more closely associated with investors’ expectations than are financial
analysts’ forecasts. Although the exact source of whisper forecasts is not known, Bagnoli et al.
(1999) believe they come from a variety of sources such as stockbrokers and/or financial analysts
as well as investor relations departments of firms. One question related to the source of whisper
forecasts is how whispers could possibly out‐perform financial analysts, who presumably have
access to superior information. We theorize that whispers’ relative information content may be
attributable to the possibility that managers are actually among the (anonymous) providers of
whispers.
Why might managers use whispers as a communication channel? Management’s
incentives to communicate with the market are driven by the desire to impact analysts’ forecasts
of earnings and therefore the market’s expectations of earnings. Those incentives differ based
upon whether analysts’ forecasts are viewed by management as being too high or too low. If
they are viewed as too high, management has the incentive to provide bad news and/or
pessimistic forward‐looking disclosures to the market so as to prevent a negative earnings
surprise. On the other hand, if they are too low, management’s incentive is conditional.
Managers likely welcome small positive surprises and they may remain silent if analysts’
forecasts are pessimistic but near management’s expectation of actual earnings. However, if
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analysts are too pessimistic, that is at a level that would lead to large positive earnings surprises,
investors may infer that earnings (and consequently the firm’s operations) are more volatile
than previously thought. To avoid this inference, management may elect to increase
expectations by providing good news and/or optimistic forward‐looking information to the
market to induce a smaller positive earnings surprise.
The relative costs of these alternatives differ because of differing litigation risk.
Specifically, we assume that it is more costly for managers to provide optimistic disclosures
than pessimistic disclosures, as shareholder lawsuits are more likely in the former case (Skinner
& Sloan, 2002). As a result, we conjecture that when managers need to raise analysts’ earnings
expectations, they may find the anonymity provided by whispers appealing as an alternative
communication channel. Note that the efficiency of communications is likely lower in the
whisper channel because of the relatively lower credibility of anonymous whisper forecasts
versus direct communication with the public (management forecasts). However, we argue that
on balance, it is plausible that whispers may be a useful tool for communication with market
participants.
The actual source of whisper forecasts is un‐knowable; thus we must rely upon
circumstantial evidence to test this conjecture. We examine the probabilities of management and
whisper forecasts occurring given the juxtaposition of the initial analysts’ forecasts relative to
actual earnings. We find that when analysts’ forecasts are optimistic, management forecasts are
statistically more likely to occur. However, when analysts’ forecasts are pessimistic, whisper
forecasts are more likely to occur. We also find that in circumstances where management is
most likely to choose to communicate via whispers, whisper forecast are more accurate,
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consistent with what would be expected if management were the source of the whispers.
Finally, in supplementary analyses we find that when management is more likely to be the
source of whisper forecasts, analysts do not appear to recognize the increased accuracy of
whispers; nor are analysts’ forecasts more highly related to investors’ expectations. This
evidence is consistent with analysts’ under‐reaction to earnings‐relevant information.
Overall, our findings add to and reinforce previous findings in the literature that
whisper forecasts of earnings are on average an incrementally informative source of
expectations of future earnings for firms. We document that this is true even in the presence of
management forecasts of earnings. In addition, we show that financial analysts appear to adjust
their forecasts of future earnings based on the information in whispers; however, as noted
above, analysts are not able to differentiate the quality of whispers based on the potential
whisper source. Finally, we provide a theory and some supporting evidence about why
whispers may be useful to market participants, namely that it is possible that in certain
circumstances whispers reflect private information being communicated anonymously to
investors when public disclosures are more risky.
II. BACKGROUND AND HYPOTHESIS DEVELOPMENT
Previous research has documented that in certain contexts whisper forecasts of earnings
are more accurate than analysts’ forecasts and more representative of the expectations of
investors (Bagnoli et al., 1999; Zaima & Harjoto, 2005). Bagnoli et al. (1999), using a sample of
127 firms concentrated in high‐technology industries from 1995 to 1997, find that whisper
forecasts are more accurate and are a better proxy for investors’ quarterly earnings expectations
than analysts’ forecasts. They examine a trading strategy based on the sign of both the whisper
3
and FirstCall forecast error. The trading strategy based on the whisper consensus forecast
errors earns significantly larger positive market‐ and size‐adjusted returns around the earnings
announcement date than a strategy based on FirstCall consensus forecast errors. Further, they
earn significant economic profits by trading on the difference between the whisper and FirstCall
forecasts based on whether the whisper is greater or less than the FirstCall forecast.
Zaima & Harjoto (2005), using a sample of 136 mostly high‐technology firms from 1999
to 2002, examine the market reaction to conflicting signals (that is, whisper/analysts’ forecasts
are above actual earnings when analysts’/whisper forecasts are below) and find that the reaction
to whisper forecast errors is stronger than the reaction to analysts’ forecast errors. In particular,
when analysts’ forecasts are pessimistic and whisper forecasts are optimistic, cumulative
abnormal returns are negative around the earnings announcement date. Each forecast source
does, however, appear to have unique information, as cumulative abnormal returns from two
days after the earnings announcement are higher when constructing a portfolio using both
information sources than using either source independently.
More recent evidence, however, indicates that although whisper forecasts are more
optimistic than consensus analysts’ forecasts they are not always more accurate (Bhattacharya et
al., 2006; Fernando & Brown, 2005). Bhattacharya et al.’s (2006) evidence indicates that the only
time whisper forecast errors have incremental information content in explaining cumulative
abnormal returns centered around the earnings announcement date over that of analysts’
forecast errors is when whisper forecasts are greater than consensus analysts forecasts. Results
by Fernando & Brown (2005) indicate that a trading strategy based on the sign of the forecast
errors works equally well using whisper or analysts’ forecasts for the period 2000 to 2004;
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however, returns using whisper forecast errors are significantly higher than returns using
analyst forecast errors for the time period 1997 to 2000.
There is a third forecasting source, however, that is also relevant to explorations of
earnings forecasts: management earnings forecasts. To date no prior research has investigated
the relative information content of whisper and analysts’ forecasts in the presence of
management forecasts. We address this empirically by testing the following hypothesis:
H1(alternative): Whisper forecasts of earnings provide information content
incremental to analysts’ forecasts after controlling for management
earnings forecasts.
We test H1 using the following model:
(1)
where Ret is the 3‐day cumulative raw return centered on the earnings announcement date for
quarter t, FEAF, FEWF and FEMF are forecast errors based on analysts’, whisper, and
management forecasts, respectively, for quarter t scaled by IBES price prior to the earnings
announcement date, Size is the natural log of total assets at the beginning of quarter t, BM is the
book to market ratio at the beginning of quarter t and DM is the debt to market ratio at the
beginning of quarter t. If whisper forecasts provide information incremental to analysts and
management forecasts, then > 0. Size, BM, and DM are included to control for other return
differences related to risk (Fama & French, 1992).
Prior research provides evidence showing that analysts quickly revise their earnings
forecasts in response to public management forecasts and their resulting revisions are more
likely to result in meetable or beatable targets (Cotter et al., 2006; Li, 2007). In addition, analysts
tend to underestimate quarterly earnings while whispers tend to overestimate quarterly
5
earnings (Bagnoli et al., 1999; Zaima & Harjoto, 2005). These differences have been attributed to
specific industries and the market run‐up in the late 1990’s; however, it is also consistent with
analysts lowering (raising) their reported estimates of earnings potentially in response to
strategic management (whisper) forecasts.
Relying on previous research documenting the superior accuracy of whisper forecasts as
well as their usefulness in explaining stock price movement, it would be rational for financial
analysts to take advantage of any superior information reflected in whisper forecasts of
earnings, to the extent that analysts aim to increase the accuracy and relevance of their forecasts.
Whether they actually do is an empirical question addressed using the following hypothesis:
H2 (alternative): Financial analysts’ forecast revisions are positively associated
with whisper forecasts of earnings.
We test the above hypothesis using the following model:
(2)
where Rev is analysts’ revisions of forecasts calculated as the analysts’ initial forecast less the
last analysts’ forecast for quarter t scaled by IBES price prior to the earnings announcement date
(where the initial and last analysts’ forecasts are the mean forecasts from the first day after the
quarter t‐1 earnings announcement date and the last day before the quarter t earnings
announcement date), FWFE and FMFE are the analysts’ initial forecast for quarter t less the
whisper or management forecast for quarter t scaled by IBES price prior to the earnings
announcement date. If analysts revise their forecasts in response to information in whispers,
then we expect > 0.
6
We also include the following control variables shown in prior research to be associated
with analysts’ revisions. Opt and Pess are indicator variables indicating membership in the
bottom and top quintiles (respectively) of the distribution of the analysts’ initial forecast error in
quarter t, FEAF is the analysts’ forecast error — to control for analysts’ tendency (documented
in previous literature) to revise future forecasts based upon their past errors, and MktRet is the
market return during the current quarter — to control for the extent to which analysts adjust to
information in market returns. Analysts is the number of analysts providing initial forecasts in
quarter t, FSTD is the standard deviation of the analysts’ initial forecasts in quarter t, and Size,
BM and DM are as defined above. Cotter et al. (2006) find analysts’ revisions are associated
with the dispersion of analysts’ forecasts and the relative optimism or pessimism in analysts’
initial forecasts, and thus we include FSTD, Opt and Pess to capture those differences.
Consistent with Matsumoto (2002) and Richardson et al. (2004), we include additional variables
to control for expected growth (BM) and litigation risk and implicit claims from stakeholders
(DM). Size and Analysts are included as proxies for firm information environment differences
that may be correlated with analysts’ revisions (e.g., Brown & Caylor, 2005).
Notwithstanding empirical evidence in this and prior studies that find whisper forecasts
apparently contain relevant information for financial analysts and investors, the anonymous
nature of whisper forecasts and the inability of researchers to observe the source of such
forecasts raises questions about the validity of interpretations that whisper forecasts provide
useful information to the market. However, given the relatively stable findings, we are
motivated to theorize about possible explanations for the phenomena.
7
If it were firms themselves who were among the information suppliers underlying
whisper forecasts of earnings, the extant empirical evidence would be more believable.
Therefore, our approach is to consider contexts where it is more or less likely that management
might be inclined to communicate with investors using whispers. Our evidence is necessarily
circumstantial because we cannot observe the actual source of the whispers. Nevertheless, we
believe that it is worthwhile to explore this possibility as a means of increasing our
understanding of previous findings in the academic literature regarding whispers.
Consider the scenario where initial analysts’ earnings forecasts are viewed by
management as too optimistic (above management’s private expectation of actual earnings). In
such circumstances, managers are motivated to find a way to decrease analysts’ forecasts by
providing “earnings guidance.”
Recent empirical evidence indicates that meeting or beating analysts’ quarterly earnings
forecasts has become increasingly important since the late 1990s and into the early 2000s (Baik &
Jiang, 2006; Brown & Caylor, 2005). The number of firms that meet or beat analyst’s estimates
has continually increased in recent years (Bartov et al., 2002). There are several potential
reasons for this: First, investors reward firms for reporting quarterly earnings that meet
analysts’ estimates more than they do for avoiding earnings decreases or avoiding quarterly
losses (Brown & Caylor, 2005). Second, the market response to negative earnings surprises is
asymmetrically large compared to positive earnings surprises, particularly for growth stocks,
suggesting a high cost to missing analysts’ expectations (Skinner & Sloan, 2002). Third,
abnormal returns are not only associated with unexpected earnings (where expectations are
measured as analysts’ forecasts at the beginning of the period) but also with the earnings
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surprise (where expectations are measured as analysts’ forecasts at the end of the period)
(Bartov et al., 2002). There appears to be a premium for beating analysts’ forecasts whether or
not the positive surprise was caused by earnings management or expectations management.
Fourth, the market rewards firms who consistently report positive earnings surprises (Barth, et
al., 1999). And, increased media coverage and more analyst following, together with an
increase in both the accuracy and precision of analysts’ forecasts appear to increase investors’
focus on analysts’ forecasts.
Recent empirical evidence is consistent with firms engaging in expectations
management in order to report earnings that meet or beat analysts’ forecasts of quarterly
earnings (e.g., Bartov et al., 2002; Matsumoto, 2002; Brown & Caylor, 2005). While analysts’
appear to start off the reporting period with overly optimistic expectations of earnings, by the
end of the reporting period their forecasts turn pessimistic (Bartov et al., 2002). Several studies
find that management guides analysts’ forecasts downward to avoid a negative earnings
surprise at the earnings announcement date (Matsumoto, 2002; Bartov et al., 2002; Richardson et
al., 2004; Baik & Jiang, 2006). Furthermore, expectations management has increased
substantially in recent years, even after the passage of Regulation Fair Disclosure in 2002 (Reg.
FD) (Bartov et al., 2002; Brown & Caylor, 2005).
In the post‐Reg. FD period comprising our sample period, managers are discouraged by
threat of legal penalties from communicating relevant information privately with financial
analysts. Thus the most direct and likely effective means of guiding analysts’ forecasts
downward to meet‐able or beatable targets is to issue public guidance, often in the form of an
explicit forecast of earnings. Formally, we make the following prediction:
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H3a (alternative): When initial analysts’ earnings forecasts are optimistic,
management forecasts are more likely to occur than whispers.
Now consider the opposite scenario where initial analysts’ earnings forecasts are
pessimistic relative to managers’ private expectations of actual earnings. In such contexts,
management is disinclined to guide analysts for two reasons: first, if analysts do not change
their forecasts, this will result in a positive earnings surprise, which brings with it significant
positive stock price movements at the earnings announcement date. Second, changing the
analysts’ forecast would require making a forecast or disclosure of good news relative to
current market expectations. Should such a forecast turn out to be incorrect and viewed
retrospectively by market participants as excessively optimistic, the manager could face civil
lawsuits from shareholders when actual earnings disappoint the market.
On the other hand, if managers believe that analysts’ forecasts are excessively
pessimistic, they may be more inclined to intervene for two reasons: provision of positive
expectations to the market tends to result in positive stock price responses upon the disclosure,
and large positive earnings surprises may raise questions about the degree of managers’
knowledge of the business (Trueman, 1986) and may cause investors to believe that earnings
(and thus the firm’s underlying operations) are more volatile than previously thought, which in
turn could increase the firm’s cost of capital.
To the extent that management is likely to want to communicate positive information to
the market to guide analysts’ forecasts upward, providing private information through the
whisper forecast mechanism is a potentially appealing alternative. Also, the anonymity of the
whisper mechanism permits managers to make good news forecasts without being “on record”
10
as having done so, thus reducing the potential liability exposure that might result if such
forecasts are not borne out.
Note that managers face significant risks in engaging in the behavior that we are
describing. Given Reg. FD, it is likely that there would be legal sanctions exacted against
managers who were found communicating private information about the firm to the market
through whispers. Nevertheless, there is widespread anecdotal evidence that managers engage
in this and similar behavior despite the potential costs. For example, Whole Foods Market’s
CEO, John Mackey, admitted in July 2007 to posting comments about Whole Foods and its
potential acquisition target, Wild Oats Markets, using a pseudonym on a Yahoo! Blog
(Kesmodel & Wilke, 2007). Ultimately it is a cost‐benefit tradeoff that each member of the
management team of a public company makes given the firm’s circumstances. We argue that it
is plausible that at least in some circumstances managers judge the potential benefits (described
above) to exceed the potential costs.
Therefore, we make the following prediction for firms in this scenario:
H3b(alternative): When initial analysts’ earnings forecasts are pessimistic,
whispers are more likely to occur than management earnings forecasts.
Evidence consistent with H3b would suggest that management may be the source of
whisper forecasts of earnings in certain circumstances, thus explaining previous findings
regarding the relative accuracy and informativeness of whisper forecasts. We test hypotheses
3a and 3b using the following two models (two different dependent variables with the same set
of independent variables):
(3)
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where Code is either MFCode or WFCode, indicator variables equal to one if there is a
management or whisper forecast issued in quarter t and zero otherwise, AbsFirstFE is the
absolute value of the analysts’ initial forecast error for quarter t, Pesscode is an indicator variable
equal to one if the first forecast error is greater than or equal to zero and zero otherwsie,
AbsFirstFE*Pesscode is the interaction of AbsFirstFE and Pesscode, and Size, BM and DM are as
defined earlier.
When estimating model (3) using MFCode, H3a predicts that the probability of a
management forecast being issued is greater if Pesscode equals zero (i.e., analysts are optimistic)
and therefore we expect < 0. When estimating model (3) using WFCode, H3b predicts that
the probability of a whisper forecast being present is greater if Pesscode equals one (i.e., analysts
are pessimistic) and therefore we expect > 0. Consistent with our prior model we include
controls for analysts’ forecast bias, growth, litigation risk and implicit claims by stakeholders,
and information environment.
Based on our theory above, when analysts’ initial forecasts are pessimistic, management
is more likely to whisper a forecast. If we are correct, such whispers, which include managers’
private information, should be more accurate and more representative of investor and analysts’
expectations than other whisper forecasts. This leads to our fourth set of hypotheses:
H4a(alternative): Whisper forecast accuracy is associated with initial forecast
pessimism.
H4b(alternative): Whisper forecast information content is associated with initial
forecast pessimism.
H4c(alternative): Analysts’ forecast revisions are associated with initial forecast
pessimism.
12
We test H4a, the accuracy dimension, by calculating the absolute forecast error – IBES
actual earnings less the forecast (whisper or analyst) deflated by IBES price prior to the earnings
announcement date, for each firm quarter. Analysts’ forecasts is the mean of the IBES analysts’
forecasts of earnings for quarter t on the last day before the quarter t earnings announcement
date. Whisper forecast is the forecast of earnings for quarter t hand collected from the
www.whispernumbers.com website. We test for differences in the median absolute whisper
and analysts’ forecast errors.1 We expect whisper forecasts to be more accurate than analysts’
forecasts when analysts’ initial forecasts are pessimistic.
We test H4b, the information content dimension, by expanding model (1) as follows:
(4)
where Ret is the 3‐day cumulative raw return centered on the earnings announcement date for
quarter t, Pesscode is an indicator variable set equal to one if analysts’ initial forecast error is > 0
and zero otherwise and Pesscode*FEWF is the interaction between whisper forecast error (FEWF)
and Pesscode. All other variables are as previously defined. If investors recognize the increased
information content of whisper forecast errors when analysts’ initial forecasts are pessimistic
then we expect > 0.
Lastly, we test H4c to determine whether analysts’ revise their forecasts differently
when their initial forecast is pessimistic versus optimistic by estimating the following
regression:
(5)
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where Rev is analysts’ revisions of forecasts calculated as the analysts’ initial forecast less the
last analysts’ forecast for quarter t scaled by IBES price prior to the earnings announcement date
(where the initial and last analysts’ forecasts are the mean forecasts from the first day after the
quarter t‐1 earnings announcement date and the last day before the quarter t earnings
announcement date), FWFEPess0 (FWFEPess1) is the analysts’ initial forecast for quarter t less
the whisper forecast for quarter t scaled by IBES price prior to the earnings announcement date
when the first analysts’ forecast error is less than zero (greater than or equal to zero).
FMFEPess0 (FMFEPess1) is the analysts’ initial forecast for quarter t less the management
forecast for quarter t scaled by IBES price prior to the earnings announcement date when the
first analysts’ forecast error is less than zero (greater than or equal to zero). The remaining
variables are controls that are described earlier. If analysts’ recognize the greater accuracy of
whisper forecasts when the analysts’ first forecasts are pessimistic then we expect > .
III. SAMPLE SELECTION AND DESCRIPTION
We manually compile a random sample of both S&P 500 and non‐S&P 500 firms with
quarterly whisper forecasts of earnings beginning the second quarter of 2002 and ending the
second quarter of 2007 with at least one whisper forecast on whispernumbers.com. We collect
whisper forecast, analyst forecast, actual earnings and the earnings announcement date for each
firm‐quarter. We match this sample with management forecasts from the FirstCall Company
Issued Guidelines data base and analysts’ forecasts and actual earnings from IBES. We then
match the forecast sample with Compustat and CRSP for other firm specific variables and
returns.
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The maximum possible number of observations for this study is 10,000 firm‐quarters
(250 S&P 500 and 250 non‐S&P 500 firms, 20 quarters per firm). As detailed in panel A of table
1, whisper forecasts are not available for 6,209 firm‐quarters. IBES forecasts and actual
earnings‐per‐share are not available for 2,343 firm‐quarter observations primarily because our
IBES data end at the first half of 2006. We calculate split‐adjusted whisper forecasts as the
whisper forecast divided by the ratio of actual earnings‐per‐share from IBES to actual earnings‐
per‐share from whispernumbers.com. Thus, in order to adjust whisper forecasts, we require
actual earnings‐per‐share from whispernumbers.com, which causes the loss of additional cases
because of missing EPS. Management forecasts are not available for 7,637 firm‐quarters. We
retain management forecasts only if there are analysts’ forecasts before and after the
management forecast date to ensure the management forecast is not announced on or
immediately preceding an earnings announcement date, consistent with prior management
forecast research (e.g., Matsumoto, 2002). We lose additional observations when the sample is
combined with Compustat and CRSP. Finally, to avoid having our inferences unduly
influenced by extreme observations, we delete observations where analysts’, whisper,
and management forecast errors or returns around the earnings announcement date are
outside the 1st or 99th percentiles of their respective pooled distributions. The final sample
consists of 7,049 firm‐quarters with analysts’ forecasts and actual earnings‐per‐share of which
1,979 firm‐quarters have whisper forecasts and 922 firm‐quarters have management forecasts.
INSERT TABLE 1 HERE
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Table 1, panel B provides additional descriptive information regarding the composition
of our sample. Analysts’ forecasts are available for 476 firms, 53.6% of which are S&P 500 firms.
Whisper and management forecasts are available for 392 and 242 firms with 59.4% and 60.7%
being S&P 500 firms, respectively. The average number of analysts, whisper and management
forecasts per firm in the sample are 14.8, 5.0 and 3.8, respectively. Membership in the S&P 500
does not appear to matter in terms of the frequency of management forecasts in our sample.
However, for analysts’ and whisper forecasts, the non‐S&P 500 firms have only 13.4 and 2.8
forecasts per firm while the S&P 500 firms have 16 and 6.7 forecasts per firm, respectively. We
therefore include Size as a control variable in subsequent analyses to capture any important
differences in regard to S&P 500 membership.
The percentage of analysts’ and whisper forecasts per year appears to be increasing over
time (with the exception of 2006, largely because we only have the first two quarters in our
sample). The p‐values for tests of differences across time (not tabulated) are significant, p= 0.006
and p< 0.001, respectively. Consistent with Li (2007), we observe that the number of
management forecasts is decreasing over time (p<0.001). These trends may be indicative of
whisper forecasts substituting for management forecasts, which is broadly consistent with our
conjecture that managers may view whispers as an alternative communication channel.2
Finally, there is no statistical difference in the proportion of management forecasts in different
fiscal quarters. Analysts’ forecasts, however, are statistically more common in the first quarter
(p<0.001) while whisper forecasts are statistically more common in the fourth quarter (p=0.022).
In sensitivity analyses, we assess the robustness of our results to year and quarter.
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Table 1, panel C provides details on the industry composition of our sample. Prior
research has had samples with high concentrations of high‐technology firms. One of the
objectives of this paper is to have a broader, more representative sample of firms. High‐
technology firms, as defined in Matsumoto (2002), represent 20.05% of the full sample of
analysts’ forecasts.3 The whisper and management forecasts samples are comprised of 24.61%
and 24.19% high‐technology firms, respectively.
Based on 1‐digit SIC classifications, the majority of observations in all three samples are
in 2‐Food, textiles, lumber, paper and 3‐Manufacturing. Combined, these two groups represent
45.75%, 49.83% and 59.08% of firm‐quarter observations, respectively. In 2‐digit SIC
classifications, the top three categories, 28‐Chemicals, 36‐Electronics and 73‐Business Services,
are the same in all three samples. However, there are several categories in which the
proportions across the samples are different. For example, the proportion of whisper and
management forecasts are greater than analysts’ in 2‐digit SIC categories 28‐Chemicals and 36‐
Electronics. The proportion of analysts’ and whisper forecasts are greater than management in
2‐digit SIC categories 49‐Electric, gas, sanitary services, 60‐Depository institutions and 63‐
Insurance. Finally, the proportion of management forecasts is greater than analysts’ and
whisper forecasts in 2‐digit SIC categories 35‐Machinery and computers, 56‐Apparel and 58‐
Eating and drinking. We believe that we have achieved one of the objectives of this paper, to
have a broader sample of firms with whisper and management forecast activity. In additional
sensitivity analyses we evaluate the robustness of our results to industry composition.
Table 2 presents descriptive statistics for the variables used in testing our hypotheses.
Consistent with prior research, in our sample analysts forecasts are, on average, more
17
pessimistic than whisper forecasts (median FEAF = 0.0007 versus FEWF = 0.0004). On average,
analysts reduce their forecasts by 8% of their last forecast (Rev = 0.0776), consistent with prior
research indicating analysts’ initial forecasts tend to be optimistic and as the earnings
announcement date approaches, they lower their forecasts.
INSERT TABLE 2 HERE
IV. TESTS OF HYPOTHESES
Table 3 presents results of the test of whether whisper forecasts of earnings provide
information content incremental to analysts’ forecasts in the presence of management earnings
forecasts (H1). The first three rows establish the association between analysts’ forecasts errors
and returns around the earnings announcement date for the full sample and the sub‐samples
excluding whisper or management forecasts. Analysts’ forecast errors appear equally
informative whether or not whisper forecasts are present. The second group of rows replicates
prior whisper forecast research (Bhattacharya et al., 2006) indicating that whispers provide
incremental information to market participants beyond analysts’ forecasts, with p‐values <
0.001.
INSERT TABLE 3 HERE
In the third group of rows, we investigate the effects of including management forecasts.
Management forecast errors are significantly associated with returns when they are by
themselves. When analysts’ forecast errors are included, however, management forecast errors
are no longer significant, likely because information from their forecasts has already been
included in analysts’ forecasts.
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We present the results of our test of H1 in the last row. When all three information
sources are present, both analysts’ and whisper forecast errors are statistically positively
associated with returns (p=0.008 and 0.065, respectively) indicating whisper forecasts remain
important in the presence of both management and analysts’ forecasts. Management forecast
errors continue to be insignificant. We note, however, that requiring both whisper forecasts and
management forecasts to be present for this test results in a relatively small sample (n =304).
Among our control variables, none are consistently significant across the analyses.
Given the evidence in table 3 that the whispers appear to represent fairly well the
earnings expectations of investors, we expect that analysts will incorporate whisper forecasts in
their revisions of future forecasts, which is our prediction in H2. Table 4 presents descriptive
statistics of analysts’ forecast revisions in panel A and results of the test of whether financial
analysts’ forecast revisions are positively associated with whisper forecasts of earnings in panel
B. According to panel A, analysts forecast revisions are the greatest when management
forecasts are present. The positive revisions indicate that on average analysts are revising their
forecasts downward. The samples with whisper and management forecasts have the longest
time periods between the first and last analysts’ forecasts and the shortest time periods between
the last analysts’ forecasts and the earnings announcement dates. This is consistent with
analysts revising their forecasts in response to both whisper and management forecasts. A
formal test of this is presented in panel B.
INSERT TABLE 4 HERE
Panel B, rows 1, 2 and 3 present results for analysts’ forecast revisions and the control
variables for the full sample and samples with no whisper or management forecasts. As
19
expected for firms in which analysts are highly optimistic (Opt), the positive and significant
coefficient estimate indicates analysts revise their forecasts downward for such firm‐quarters.
Similarly, for firms in which analysts are extremely pessimistic (Pess), the significant negative
coefficient estimate indicates analysts revise their forecasts upward.
The results of our test of H2 are presented in rows 4 and 5. Analysts do appear to revise
their forecasts in response to whispers as indicated by the significant (p < 0.001) positive
coefficient on FWFE (the difference between analysts’ initial forecasts and whisper forecasts of
earnings). Rows 6 and 7 add to the model the difference between analysts’ initial forecasts and
management forecasts of earnings (FMFE). Consistent with prior research, the significantly
positive coefficient estimate indicates that when management forecasts are present, analysts
revise their forecasts consistent with the information conveyed by management forecasts (Li,
2007).
Row 8 provides an additional test of the association of whisper forecasts and analysts
forecast revisions, controlling for management forecasts. The requirement that we have both
forecast sources present reduces our sample size to only 306 firm‐quarters. Nevertheless,
consistent with the market reacting to the incremental information content of whisper forecasts
errors in table 3, adjustments to analysts’ forecasts incorporate information in both whispers
and management earnings forecasts.
Our results from tests of H1 and H2 are supportive of market participants viewing both
whisper and management forecasts as possessing relevant information. Hypotheses 3a and 3b,
however, presume that these forecasts sources generally should not overlap. The low number
of observations in our overlapping sample is consistent with this expectation.
20
Formal tests of H3a and H3b are presented in table 5. H3a states that the likelihood of a
management forecast occurring increases when analysts’ initial earnings forecasts are
optimistic. H3b states that the likelihood of a whisper forecast occurring increases when
analysts’ initial forecasts are pessimistic. Model (3) is estimated separately for management
forecasts and whisper forecasts. The significant negative coefficient estimate on Pesscode in the
management forecast regression (coefficient estimate = ‐0.2555, p‐value <0.001) indicates that
when analysts are initially pessimistic management is less likely to issue a forecast. This finding
holds in both sub‐samples.
INSERT TABLE 5 HERE
The significant positive coefficient estimate on Pesscode in the whisper forecast
regression (0.1544, p‐value =0.001) indicates that whisper forecasts are more likely to be issued
when analysts are pessimistic. This finding holds in the no management forecast sample but
disappears in the management forecast sample. Consistent with the sample description in table
1, whisper forecasts are more likely to occur for larger firms in our sample. Overall, the results
reported in table 5 are consistent with the conjecture that management may indeed view
whispers as a substitute communication channel in circumstances where prevailing market
expectations are pessimistic.
Our final tests are of H4a, b and c, whether whisper forecast accuracy, information
content and analyst forecast revisions are associated with initial forecast pessimism. The results
are presented in table 6. If H4a holds in our sample then we expect whisper forecasts to be
more accurate than analysts’ forecasts when initial analysts’ forecasts are pessimistic and
analysts’ forecasts to be more accurate than whisper forecasts when initial analysts’ forecasts are
21
optimistic. In panel A, our results are consistent with this expectation as in the Pesscode=0
group analysts’ forecasts are statistically more accurate than whisper forecasts (p<0.001). In the
Pesscode=1 group, however, both forecast sources have the same median forecast errors. We
investigate this expectation further by ranking the analysts’ first forecast errors (analysts’
forecast error based on the initial analysts’ forecast for the quarter) within the Pesscode groups
into quintiles where rank 0 contains the smallest positive/negative errors and rank 4 contains
the largest positive/negative errors. We find that median whisper forecast errors are
statistically smaller than median analysts’ forecast errors in three of the five quintiles when the
initial analysts’ forecast errors are pessimistic. When the initial analysts’ forecast errors are not
pessimistic, analysts’ forecasts are more accurate than whisper forecasts in all quintiles.
INSERT TABLE 6 HERE
The results of testing H4b are presented in panel B. Despite the results in panel A, in
panel B we do not find evidence that whispers are more highly associated with investors’
earnings expectations in the presence of pessimistic analysts’ forecasts. Specifically, the
coefficient on the interaction between whisper forecast errors and the pessimism indicator
(Pesscode*FEWF) is not significantly different from zero.
Panel C investigates whether revisions of analysts’ forecast errors are more highly
associated with whisper forecasts when analysts are initially pessimistic, H4c. If analysts’
incorporate the increased accuracy of whisper forecasts when analysts’ initial forecasts are
pessimistic we expect > . In untabulated tests, the coefficient estimates on FWFEPess0 and
FWFEPess1 are not statistically different in the whisper forecast sample (p=0.578) or in the
combined whisper and management forecast sample (p=0.152). In the management forecast
22
sample, it is interesting to note that analysts appear to respond more to management forecasts
when the initial analysts’ forecasts are optimistic (FMFEPess0), however, the coefficient estimate
is not statistically different from the estimate on FMFEPess1 (p=0.142).
In summary, table 6 indicates that consistent with our theory that management may be
the source of whisper forecasts when initial analysts’ forecasts are pessimistic, whisper forecasts
are more accurate in this context. However, the market and the analysts do not appear to
incorporate the differential whisper forecast accuracy depending on forecast source in stock
prices or forecasts of earnings.
V. SENSITIVITY ANALYSES
Our descriptive statistics in table 1 indicate that both the number of analysts’ and
whisper forecasts per year are increasing over time. To ensure the results found in section IV
hold throughout our entire sample period, we estimate all models examined by year (2003, 2004
and 2005). Our untabulated results indicate that our findings hold across all years examined.
In addition, our descriptive statistics in Table 1 indicate that whisper forecasts appear to be
statistically more common in the fourth quarter; whereas, analysts’ forecasts appear to be more
common in the first quarter. We therefore test all 4 hypotheses by quarter to ensure the results
found previously are not being driven by any particular quarter. Our untabulated results
indicate that our findings hold across all 4 quarters.
Previous research documenting the superior performance of whisper forecasts (Bagnoli
et al., 1999; Zaima & Harjoto, 2005) has contained sample firms concentrated in high‐technology
industries and the S&P 500. To ensure our results are not being driven by industry clustering,
we alternatively eliminate high‐tech firms, firms with 1‐digit SIC codes 2‐Food, textiles, lumber,
23
paper and 3‐Manufacturing and firms with 2‐digit SIC codes 28‐Chemical and 36‐Electronics.
Our results and conclusions reported in Section IV remain in all of our reduced samples.
Prior research on factors that influence managers to take actions to avoid negative
earnings surprises include firms whose future survival is at risk (Bartov et al., 2002), with a
consistent stream of positive surprises (Bartov et al., 2002 and Baik & Jiang, 2006), with high
transient institutional ownership (Baik & Jiang, 2006; Richardson et al., 2004 and Matsumoto,
2002), incurring losses (Baik & Jiang, 2006), with managerial incentives to sell stock (Richardson
et al., 2004), with high litigation risk or a high reliance on implicit claims with stakeholders
(Matsumoto, 2002; Richardson et al., 2004), in industries in which earnings are more value‐
relevant (Matsumoto, 2002) and in high‐tech industries (Li, 2007). To test the sensitivity of our
results to these factors, we expanded model 3 (Probit model) to incorporate controls for these
factors. In untabulated results, we find that while some of the variables were significant, their
inclusion did not affect any of our inferences drawn from table 5.
VI. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The purpose of this paper is to investigate the puzzle as to why whisper forecasts of
earnings, an anonymous source of earnings expectations, has been found in prior studies to be
more accurate than financial analysts’ forecasts and/or more highly associated with investors’
implicit expectations of earnings. We theorize that one possible explanation is that in some
contexts, the source of the whisper may be management of firms themselves.
While we cannot directly observe the source of whispers, we perform a set of tests
designed to provide circumstantial evidence that bears on our conjecture. Specifically, we posit
that in circumstances where management wants to communicate positive forward‐looking
24
information to investors to avoid excessively large positive earnings surprises at the earnings
announcement date, management may elect to communicate anonymously through whispers.
In so doing, they avoid the risk that the predicted good news about the future turns out to be
wrong at great legal cost to the firm and/or management.
In our tests, we confirm prior findings that whispers are incremental to analysts’
forecasts as a proxy for investors’ earnings expectations. We also find that whispers are
incrementally informative, even after controlling for information in management forecasts. In
addition we show that whispers appear to explain financial analysts’ forecast revisions.
More directly to our main point, we find that, as predicted, when initial analysts’
forecasts are optimistic, management forecasts are relatively more likely. In contrast, when
initial analysts’ forecasts are pessimistic, whispers are relatively more likely. This evidence is
consistent with management viewing internal management forecasts and whispers as substitute
communication channels, conditional on the nature of the information that they wish to convey
in managing earnings expectations. We find additional confirming circumstantial evidence in
that if management is indeed the source of whispers for firm‐quarters where analysts are most
pessimistic, we expect in those circumstances that whispers would be most accurate. Our initial
evidence in this regard finds precisely that: significantly greater forecast accuracy for whispers
in the presence of pessimistic analysts’ forecasts. However, we find that the market and
analysts do not incorporate the differential accuracy of whisper forecasts depending on the
theorized forecast source in earnings expectations or forecasts of earnings. Overall, we believe
that we provide a plausible explanation for past results regarding whispers, together with some
early evidence in support of that story.
25
Footnotes
1 The mean forecast errors are sensitive to the presence of extreme values in our sample. We
therefore focus on median forecast errors.
2 The increasing incidence of whisper forecasts is also potentially consistent with increasing
coverage of firms by whispernumbers.com over this time period. Data limitations prohibit us
from differentiating between the two alternatives; we do not expect our test of hypotheses to be
affected.
3 High‐technology firms are firms identified as being in high technology industries as
determined by Matsumoto (2002) and include firms with the following SIC codes 2832‐2837,
3569‐3578, 3599‐3675 and 7370‐7380.
26
REFERENCES
Bagnoli, M., Beneish, M.D. & Watts, S.G. 1999. “Whisper Forecasts of Quarterly Earnings‐per‐
share”, Journal of Accounting and Economics 28, pp. 27‐50.
Baik, B. & Jiang, G. 2006. “The Use of Management Forecasts to Dampen Analysts’
Expectations”, Journal of Accounting and Public Policy 25, pp. 531‐553.
Barth, M., Elliot, J. & Finn, M. 1999. “Market Rewards Associated with Patterns of Increasing
Earnings”, Journal of Accounting Research 37(2), pp. 387‐413.
Bartov, E. Givoly, D. & Hayn, C. 2002. “The Rewards to Meeting and Beating Earnings
Expectations”, Journal of Accounting and Economics 33, pp. 173‐204.
Bhattacharya, N., Sheikh, A. & Thiagarajan, S.R. 2006. “Does the Market Listen to Whispers?”,
The Journal of Investing, pp. 16‐24.
Brown, L.D. & Caylor, M.L. 2005. “A Temporal Analysis of Quarterly Earnings Thresholds:
Propensities and Valuation Consequences”, The Accounting Review Vol 80, pp. 423‐440.
Cotter J., Tuna, I. & Wysocki, P.D. 2006. “Expectation Management and Beatable Targets.
How do Analysts React to Explicit Earnings Guidance?”, Contemporary Accounting
Research, Vol. 23, pp. 593‐624.
Fama, E.F. & French, K.R. 1992. “The Cross‐Section of Expected Returns”, The Journal of
Fincance, pp. 427‐465.
Li, F. 2007. “Expectations Management and Public Guidance in the Post‐Regulation Period”,
Working Paper, University of Massachusetts Amherst.
Fernando, G.D. & Brown Jr., W.D. 2005. “Whisper Forecasts of Earnings‐per‐share: IS Anyone
Still Listening?”, Working paper, Syracuse University.
Kesmodel, D., & Wilke, J. 2007. “Whole Foods is Hot, Wild Oats a Dud — So Said ‘Rahodeb’”,
The Wall Street Journal, July 12, p. 1.
Matsumoto, D.A. 2002. “Management’s Incentives to Avoid Negative Earnings Surprises”, The
Accounting Review, pp. 483‐514.
Richardson, S., Teoh, S.H. & Wysocki, P.D. 2004. “The Walk‐down to Beatable Analyst
Forecasts: The Role of Equity Issuance and Insider Trading Incentives”, Contemporary
Accounting Research Vol. 21., pp. 885‐924.
27
Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) 2000. Selective disclosure and insider trading
(Regulation FD). 17 CFR parts 240, 243 and 249; release nos. 33‐7881, 34‐43154, and IC‐
24599.
Skinner, D., & Sloan, R. 2002. “Earnings Surprises, Growth Expectations, and Stock Returns or
Don’t Let an Earnings Torpedo Sind Your Portfolio”, Review of Accounting Studies 7, pp.
289‐312.
Trueman, B. 1986. “Why Do Managers Voluntarily Release Earnings Forecasts?”, Journal of
Accounting and Economics 8(1), pp. 53‐71.
Zaima, J.K. & Harjoto, M.A. 2005. “ Conflict in Whispers and Analysts Forecasts: Which One
Should Be Your Guide?”, Financial Decisions 6, pp.1‐16.
28
Table 1
Sample Selection and Description
Panel A: Sample selection
Forecasts
Analysts’ Whisper Management
Total firm‐quarters available – 20 10,000 10,000 10,000
quarters (Q2 2002 – Q2 2007) 500
firms
Firm‐quarters with no forecast (6,209) (7,637)
Analysts’ forecast and actual missing (2,343) (914)
Whisper actual earnings missing (477)
Split adjusted whisper forecast (281)
missing
Prior forecast missing (1,293)
Post forecast missing (100)
Extreme observations (608) (140) (48)
Total firm‐quarter observations 7,049 1,979 922
S&P 500 firm‐quarters 4,083 (57.9%) 1,566 (79.1%) 571 (61.9%)
Non‐S&P 500 firm‐quarters 2,966 (42.1%) 413 (20.9%) 351 (38.1%)
Panel B: Sample Description
Total Firms 476 392 242
S&P 500 Firms 255 (53.6%) 233 (59.4%) 147 (60.7%)
Non‐S&P 500 Firms 221 (46.4%) 159 (40.6%) 95 (39.3%)
Average forecasts per firm
Total 14.8 5.0 3.8
S&P 500 16.0 6.7 3.9
Non‐S&P 500 13.4 2.5 3.7
Forecasts by year
2002 1,482 (21.0%) 263 (13.3%) 247 (26.8%)
2003 1,564 (22.2%) 498 (25.1%) 227 (24.6%)
2004 1,717 (24.4%) 452 (22.8%) 218 (23.6%)
2005 1,733 (24.6%) 681 (29.4%) 180 (19.5%)
2006 553 (7.8%) 185 (9.4%) 50 (5.4%)
Forecasts by quarter
Q1 1,995 (28.3%) 447 (22.6%) 252 (27.3%)
Q2 1,724 (24.5%) 480 (24.3%) 218 (23.6%)
Q3 1,659 (23.5%) 513 (25.9%) 234 (25.4%)
Q4 1,671 (23.7%) 539 (27.2%) 218 (23.6%)
29
Table 1 (Continued)
Panel C: Industry Composition
Full Sample Whisper Forecasts Management Forecasts
Technology Industries Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Frequency Percent
non‐High Technology 5,636 79.95 1,492 75.39 699 75.81
High Technology 1,413 20.05 487 24.61 223 24.19
Total 7,049 100.00 1,979 100.00 922 100.00
Full Sample Whisper Forecasts Management Forecasts
1‐Digit SIC Code Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Frequency Percent
1‐ Mining, Oil and Gas
Extraction, Construction 385 5.46 70 3.54 30 3.25
1,361 19.31 429 21.68 226 24.51
2‐ Food, Textiles, Lumber, Paper 1,864 26.44 557 28.15 316 34.27
858 12.17 241 12.18 54
3‐ Manufacturing 431 128 137 5.86
1,175 6.11 297 6.47 42 14.86
4‐ Transportation, Communication 773 16.67 218 15.01 90
161 10.97 17 11.02 18 4.56
5‐ Wholesale, Retail Sales 41 22 9 9.76
7,049 2.28 1,979 0.86 922 1.95
6‐ Financial 0.58 1.11 0.98
100.00 100.00 100.00
7‐ Business Services
8‐ Public Services
9‐ Administration
Total
30
Table 1 (Continued)
2‐Digit SIC Code
13‐ Oil and Gas Extraction Full Sample Whisper Sample Management Sample
20‐ Food and Kindred Products
21‐ Tobacco Products Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Frequency Percent
23‐Apparel Products
24‐ Lumber and Wood Products 257 3.65 51 2.58 18 1.95
26‐ Paper Products
27‐ Printing and Publishing 149 2.11 34 1.72 19 2.06
28‐ Chemical Products
29‐ Pete Refining 17 0.86
30‐ Rubber and Plastics Products
33‐ Primary Metals 7 0.76
34‐ Fabricated Metals
35‐ Machinery and Computers 82 1.16 16 0.81 14 1.52
36‐ Electronics
37‐ Transportation Equipment 97 1.38 31 1.57 15 1.63
38‐ Measuring Instruments
40‐ Railroad Transportation 133 1.89 50 2.53 37 4.01
694 9.85 239 12.08 130 14.10
100 1.42 27 1.36
72 1.02 20 1.01 12 1.30
101 1.43 19 0.96 16 1.74
73 1.04 15 0.76 16 1.74
336 4.77 96 4.85 79 8.57
603 8.55 233 11.77 112 12.15
240 3.40 75 3.79 29 3.15
387 5.49 93 4.70 50 5.42
70 0.99 44 2.22 11 1.19
31
Table 1 (Continued)
Full Sample Whisper Sample Management Sample
2‐Digit SIC Code
44‐ Water Transportation Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Frequency Percent
48‐ Communications
49‐ Electric, Gas, and Sanitary 66 0.94
Services
50‐ Durable Goods‐Wholesale 163 2.31 28 1.41 13 1.41
51‐ Nondurable Goods‐Wholesale
56‐ Apparel and Accessory Stores 480 6.81 138 6.97 18 1.95
57‐ Home Furniture and Equipment 22 1.11
Stores 17 0.86
58‐ Eating and Drinking Places 90 26 1.31 58
59‐ Miscellaneous Retail 1.28 6.29
60‐ Depository Institutions
61‐ Non‐depository Credit 12 1.30
Institutions 129 1.83 28 1.41 45 4.88
62‐ Security and Commodity 21 1.06 14 1.52
Brokers 385 126 6.37 13 1.41
63‐ Insurance Carriers 5.46
69 0.98 26 1.31
129 1.83 25 1.26
390 5.53 104 5.26 21 2.28
32
Table 1 (Continued)
Full Sample Whisper Sample Management Sample
2‐Digit SIC Code Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Frequency Percent
67‐ Holding and Other Investment
Offices 161 2.28
73‐ Business Services 649 9.21 190 9.60 79 8.57
78‐ Motion Pictures 8 0.87
80‐ Health Services 98 1.39 14 1.52
99‐ Non‐classifiable Establishments 22 1.11 9 0.98
Other 846 12.00 146 7.38 53 5.75
Total 7,049 100.00 1,979 100.00 922 100.00
Variable Definitions:
S&P 500 firms are firms identified as being in the S&P 500 by Compustat in 2006.
The sample consists of 250 randomly selected S&P 500 and 250 randomly selected non‐S&P 500 firms with at least one whisper forecast on
www.whispernumbers.com during the 20 quarter period beginning the second quarter of 2002 and ending the second quarter of 2007.
Analysts’ forecasts is the mean of the IBES analysts’ forecasts of earnings for quarter t on the last day before the quarter t earnings announcement
date.
Actual is the actual earnings for quarter t from IBES.
Whisper Forecast is the forecast of earnings for quarter t hand collected from the www.whispernumbers.com website. The whisper forecast is
adjusted for stock splits and stock dividends based on the ratio of actual earnings from IBES to actual earnings collected from the
whispernumbers.com website.
Whisper actual earnings is the actual earnings for quarter t hand collected from the whispernumbers.com website.
Management Forecast is the forecast of earnings for quarter t announced after the earnings announcement date for quarter t‐1 and before the
earnings announcement date for quarter t from the FirstCall database. If the forecast is a range, the mid‐point of the forecast range is used. If
multiple management forecasts are provided, the last management forecast is used.
Prior Forecast is the mean IBES analysts’ forecasts of earnings for quarter t for the time period beginning after the earnings announcement date of
quarter t‐1 earnings and ending just prior to the announcement date of the management forecast.
Post Forecast is the mean IBES analysts’ forecasts of earnings for quarter t for the time period beginning after the announcement date of the
management forecast and ending just prior to the quarter t earnings announcement date.
High Technology firms are firms identified as being in high technology industries as determined by Matsumoto (2002) and include firms with the
following SIC codes 2832‐2837, 3569‐3578, 3599‐3675 and 7370‐7380.
33
Table 2
Descriptive Statistics
Variable Standard First Third
Name N Mean Deviation Minimum Quartile Median Quartile Maximum
AF 7,049 0.4157 0.4284 ‐6.8800 0.1575 0.3500 0.5900 4.9700
MF 922 0.4295 0.3853 ‐1.3700 0.1750 0.3800 0.6250 3.2000
WF 1,979 0.5072 0.4152 ‐1.0800 0.2200 0.4300 0.7000 2.9700
FEAF 7,049 0.0007 0.0032 ‐0.0209 0.0000 0.0004 0.0015 0.0179
FEMF 922 0.0006 0.0023 ‐0.0205 0.0000 0.0003 0.0009 0.0132
FEWF 1,979 0.0004 0.0026 ‐0.0156 ‐0.0003 0.0003 0.0012 0.0132
Ret 6,448 0.0056 0.0594 ‐0.2029 ‐0.0265 0.0055 0.0379 0.1923
Size 7,044 32.1919 123.5900 0.0076 1.1802 4.0163 16.0357 1,626.5510
BM 7,049 0.4676 0.3211 ‐1.9002 0.2648 0.4125 0.6039 4.6978
DM 7,049 0.3741 0.7359 0.0000 0.0446 0.1739 0.4489 20.5695
Rev 7,033 0.0776 2.1344 ‐23.0000 ‐0.0384 0.0000 0.0476 107.0000
FirstMFE 922 0.0014 0.0070 ‐0.0275 ‐0.0006 0.0000 0.0018 0.0717
FirstWFE 1.979 ‐0.0000 0.0031 ‐0.0248 ‐0.0007 ‐0.0002 0.0004 0.0467
Analysts 7,049 4.2529 4.4929 1.0000 1.0000 2.0000 6.0000 41.0000
FirstSTD 7,049 0.0265 0.0325 0.0000 0.0093 0.0245 0.0317 0.7857
FirstFE 7,049 0.0001 0.0059 ‐0.1191 ‐0.0004 0.0004 0.0016 0.0789
Variable Definitions:
AF is analysts’ forecast measured as the mean of the IBES analysts’ forecasts of earnings for quarter t on the last day before the quarter t earnings
announcement date.
MF is management forecast measured as the forecast of earnings for quarter t announced after the earnings announcement date for quarter t‐1 and
before the earnings announcement date for quarter t from the FirstCall database. If the forecast is a range, the mid‐point of the forecast range
is used. If multiple management forecasts are provided, the last management forecast is used.
34
Table 2 (Continued)
Variable Definitions:
WF is whisper forecast measured as the forecast of earnings for quarter t hand collected from the www.whispernumbers.com website. The
whisper forecast is adjusted for stock splits and stock dividends based on the ratio of actual earnings from IBES to actual earnings collected
from the whispernumbers.com website.
FEAF is analystsʹ forecast error calculated as IBES actual earnings for quarter t less analystsʹ forecasts (AF) scaled by IBES price prior to the
earnings announcement date.
FEMF is management forecast error calculated as IBES actual earnings for quarter t less the management forecast (MF) scaled by IBES price prior
to the earnings announcement date.
FEWF is whisper forecast error calculated as IBES actual earnings for quarter t less the whisper forecast (WF) scaled by IBES price prior to the
earnings announcement date.
Ret is the 7‐day cumulative raw return centered around the quarter t earnings announcement date from CRSP.
Size is the natural log of total assets (Compustat variable ATQ) at the beginning of quarter t.
BM is the book to market ratio at the beginning of quarter t calculated as common stockholders’ equity (SEQQ) divided by market value of equity
(MKVALQ).
DM is the debt to market ratio at the beginning of quarter t calculated as total long term debt (DLTTQ) divided by market value of equity
(MKVALQ).
Rev is analysts’ revisions of forecasts calculated as the mean of the IBES analysts’ initial forecast after the quarter t‐1 earnings announcement date
less analysts’ last forecast (AF) divided by the absolute value of analysts’ last forecast (AF).
FirstMFE is the first management forecast error calculated as the mean of the IBES analysts’ initial forecast after the quarter t‐1 earnings
announcement date less the management forecast (MF) of earnings for quarter t scaled by IBES price prior to the earnings announcement date.
FirstWFE is the first whisper forecast error calculated as the mean of the IBES analysts’ initial forecast after the quarter t‐1 earnings announcement
date less the whisper forecast (WF) for quarter t scaled by IBES price prior to the earnings announcement date.
Analysts is the number of analysts used to calculate the mean of the IBES analysts’ initial forecast after the quarter t‐1 earnings announcement
date.
FirstSTD is the standard deviation around the mean of the IBES analysts’ initial forecast after the quarter t‐1 earnings announcement date.
FirstFE is the first analystsʹ forecast error calculated as the IBES actual earnings for quarter t less the mean of the IBES analysts’ initial forecast after
the quarter t‐1 earnings announcement date scaled by IBES price prior to the earnings announcement date.
35
The number of observations is after the extreme 1st and 99th percentiles of AF, MF, WF, FEAF, FEMF and FEWF have been deleted.
Table 3
Information Content of Competing Forecast Sources
(1)
R2
Coefficient Estimates (p‐values)
0.046
N Intercept FEAF FEWF FEMF Size BM DM 0.046
0.045
Analysts’Sample
0.044
Full Sample 6,017 0.005 3.796 ‐0.000 0.002 ‐0.002 0.044
0.044
(0.101) (<0.001) (0.538) (0.347) (0.152)
0.046
No Whisper 4,186 0.005 3.484 ‐0.000 0.000 0.000 0.046
0.046
(0.138) (<0.001) (0.474) (0.851) (0.883)
No Management 5,214 0.007 3.698 ‐0.000 0.002 ‐0.001
(0.033) (<0.001) (0.190) (0.409) (0.609)
Whisper Sample
1,838 0.006 5.193 ‐0.000 0.002 ‐0.003
(0.320) (<0.001) (0.709) (0.684) (0.026)
1,835 0.009 4.409 ‐0.000 0.005 ‐0.004
(0.125) (<0.001) (0.457) (0.281) (0.005)
1,838 0.009 3.351 2.542 ‐0.001 0.002 ‐0.003
(0.136) (<0.001) (<0.001) (0.399) (0.611) (0.137)
Management Sample
802 ‐0.014 5.705 0.002 ‐0.001 ‐0.013
(0.171) (<0.001) (0.035) (0.858) (<0.001)
801 ‐0.007 3.366 0.002 ‐0.004 ‐0.008
(0.487) (0.001) (0.114) (0.591) (0.052)
802 ‐0.014 5.428 0.422 0.002 ‐0.001 ‐0.013
(0.168) (<0.001) (0.662) (0.036) (0.866) (<0.001)
36
Table 3 (Continued)
Coefficient Estimates (p‐values)
N Intercept FEAF FEWF FEMF Size BM DM R2
Intersection of Whisper and Management Samples
304 0.017 6.256 2.708 ‐0.994 ‐0.001 0.013 ‐0.011 0.043
(0.358) (0.008) (0.065) (0.619) (0.502) (0.230) (0.001)
Variable Definitions:
Ret is the 3‐day cumulative raw return centered around the quarter t earnings announcement date from CRSP.
FEAF is analystsʹ forecast error calculated as IBES actual earnings for quarter t less analystsʹ forecasts scaled IBES price prior to the earnings
announcement date.
FEMF is management forecast error calculated as IBES actual earnings for quarter t less the management forecast scaled IBES price prior to the
earnings announcement date.
FEWF is whisper forecast error calculated as IBES actual earnings for quarter t less the whisper forecast scaled IBES price prior to the earnings
announcement date.
Size is the natural log of total assets (Compustat variable ATQ) at the beginning of quarter t.
BM is the book to market ratio at the beginning of quarter t calculated as common stockholders’ equity (SEQQ) divided by market value of equity
(MKVALQ).
DM is the debt to market ratio at the beginning of quarter t calculated as total long term debt (DLTTQ) divided by market value of equity
(MKVALQ).
Whiteʹs heteroscedasticity consistent standard errors are used in calculating the p‐values. Regressions control for clusters of firm quarter
observations from the same firm. The number of observations reflects the 1st and 99th percentiles of the FEAF, FEMF and FEWF being
deleted.
37
Table 4
Analystsʹ Forecast Revisions
Panel A: Analysts’ Forecast Revisions Descriptive Statistics
Full No No
Sample Whisper Mgt Whisper Mgt
N 7,033 5,055 6,112 1,978 921
Analysts’ Forecast Revisions
Mean 0.078 0.083 0.065 0.065 0.161
Median 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.003
Days Between First and Last Analysts’ Forecasts
Mean 63 60 62 72 76
Median 75 71 74 80 79
Days From Last Analysts’ Forecast to Earnings Announcement Date
Mean 24 26 25 19 15
Median 13 14 13 9 10
38
Table 4 (Continued)
Panel B: Analystsʹ Forecast Revisions in Response to Management and Whisper Earnings Forecasts
(2)
Coefficient Estimates (p-values)
N Int FWFE FMFE Opt Pess FEAFt-1 MktRet Size BM DM Analysts FSTD R2
Analysts’ Sample 0.068 -0.009 0.001 0.321 0.22
(0.002) (0.179) (0.176) (0.249)
6,286 -0.012 0.341 -0.286 35.707 -0.002 -0.004
0.063 -0.017 0.001 0.571 0.35
(0.558) (<0.001) (<0.001) (<0.001) (<0.001) (0.103) (0.008) (0.039) (0.598) (0.082)
Analysts’ and No Whisper Sample 0.053 -0.007 0.000 0.354 0.31
(0.006) (0.292) (0.752) (0.231)
4,382 -0.018 0.342 -0.300 35.845 -0.001 -0.003
0.028 0.007 0.001 -0.640 0.27
(0.448) (<0.001) (<0.001) (<0.001) (<0.001) (0.336) (0.317) (0.558) (0.315) (0.002)
Analysts’and No Management Forecast Sample
5,458 -0.011 0.302 -0.264 34.989 -0.001 -0.003
(0.591) (<0.001) (<0.001) (<0.001) (0.001) (0.178)
Whisper Sample
1,900 -0.030 0.336 -0.247 40.719 -0.002 0.000
(0.355) (<0.001) (<0.001) (<0.001) (0.002) (0.898)
1,898 -0.012 32.027 0.238 -0.191 35.980 -0.001 -0.001 0.028 -0.003 0.001 -0.282 0.33
(0.693) (<0.001) (<0.001) (<0.001) (<0.001) (0.054) (0.649) (0.238) (0.654) (0.320) (0.159)
Management Sample 0.387 -0.325 5.196 -0.003 0.002 0.144 -0.001 0.002 0.411 0.45
818 -0.090 (<0.001) (<0.001) (0.502) (<0.001) (0.710) (0.021) (0.969) (0.367) (0.342)
(0.090)
817 -0.066 37.283 0.201 -0.199 7.716 -0.002 0.002 0.109 0.029 -0.000 -0.251 0.56
(<0.001) (0.231) (0.010) (0.704) (0.028) (0.307) (0.839) (0.563)
(0.213 (<0.001) (<0.001)
-0.235 23.115 -0.001 0.012 0.046 0.007 -0.002 -0.393 0.78
Intersection of Whisper and Management Samples
306 -0.121 11.531 24.369 0.114
39
(0.011) (0.006) (<0.001) (<0.001) (<0.001) (<0.001) (0.172) (0.026) (0.227) (0.640) (0.093) (0.220)
Table 4 (Continued)
Variable Definitions:
Rev is analysts’ revisions of forecasts calculated as the mean of the IBES analysts’ initial forecast after the quarter t‐1 earnings announcement date
less analysts’ last forecast divided by the absolute value of analysts’ first forecast.
FWFE is the first whisper forecast error calculated as the mean of the IBES analysts’ initial forecast after the quarter t‐1 earnings announcement
date less the whisper forecast for quarter t scaled by IBES price prior to the earnings announcement date.
FMFE is the first management forecast error calculated as the mean of the IBES analysts’ initial forecast after the quarter t‐1 earnings
announcement date less the management forecast of earnings for quarter t scaled by IBES price prior to the earnings announcement date.
Opt is an indicator variable equal to one if the first analystsʹ forecast error calculated as the IBES actual earnings for quarter t less the mean of the
IBES analysts’ initial forecast after the quarter t‐1 earnings announcement date scaled by IBES price prior to the earnings announcement date
quarter t is in the lowest quintile and is zero otherwise.
Pess is an indicator variable equal to one if the first analystsʹ forecast error calculated as the IBES actual earnings for quarter t less the mean of the
IBES analysts’ initial forecast after the quarter t‐1 earnings announcement date scaled by IBES price prior to the earnings announcement date
for quarter t is in the highest quintile and is zero otherwise.
FEAFt‐1 is analystsʹ forecast error in quarter t‐1.
MktRet is the contemporaneous market return in quarter t from Compustat (MKRTXQ).
Size is the natural log of total assets (Compustat variable ATQ) at the beginning of quarter t.
BM is the book to market ratio at the beginning of quarter t calculated as common stockholders’ equity (SEQQ) divided by market value of equity
(MKVALQ).
DM is the debt to market ratio at the beginning of quarter t calculated as total long term debt (DLTTQ) divided by market value of equity
(MKVALQ).
Analysts is the number of analysts used to calculate the mean of the IBES analysts’ initial forecast after the quarter t‐1 earnings announcement
date.
FirstSTD is the standard deviation around the mean of the IBES analysts’ initial forecast after the quarter t‐1 earnings announcement date.
Whiteʹs heteroscedasticity consistent standard errors are used in calculating the p‐values. Regressions control for clusters of firm quarter
observations from the same firm. The number of observations reflects the 1st and 99th percentiles of the FEAF, FEMF and FEWF being
deleted.
40
Table 5
Probit Analyses of the Likelihood of Management and Whisper Forecasts
(3)
Pseudo
Coefficient Estimates (p‐values)
R2
AbsFirstFE*
0.028
Intercept AbsFirstFE Pesscode Pesscode Size BM DM 0.024
0.045
Likelihood of Management Forecasts ‐0.2636 ‐0.3680
(0.043) (0.007) 0.075
Full Sample 0.076
‐0.1937 ‐0.3186 0.088
N=7,049 ‐0.9296 16.8554 ‐0.2555 9.8775 0.0167 (0.112) (0.004)
(<0.001) (0.344) (0.429)
(<0.001) (0.001) ‐0.4121 ‐0.4334
‐0.2466 5.2659 0.0070 (0.090) (0.028)
No Whisper Forecasts (<0.001) (0.598) (0.743)
‐0.4955 ‐0.0901
N=5,070 ‐0.9509 14.4559 ‐0.2776 12.5160 ‐0.0071 (<0.001) (0.112)
(0.025) (0.603) (0.833)
(<0.001) (0.003) ‐0.4762 ‐0.0599
(<0.001) (0.267)
Whisper Forecasts
‐0.4519 ‐0.4830
N=1,979 ‐0.5622 62.6416 (0.074) (0.055)
(0.082) (<0.001)
Likelihood of Whisper Forecasts
Full Sample
N=7,049 ‐2.0437 ‐13.2073 0.1544 ‐12.2693 0.1948
(0.001) (0.232) (<0.001)
(<0.001) (0.013)
0.1749 ‐13.4651 0.1901
No Management Forecasts (<0.001) (0.242) (<0.001)
N=6,127 ‐2.0575 ‐20.6492 0.0624 29.5844 0.2621
(0.660) (0.179) (<0.001)
(<0.001) (0.007)
Management Forecasts
N=922 ‐2.3401 ‐2.3502
(<0.001) (0.784)
41
Table 5 (Continued)
Variable Definitions:
Code is either MFCode, an indicator variable equal to one if a management forecast is issued and zero otherwise, or WFCode, an
indicator variable equal to one if a whisper forecast is present and zero otherwise.
AbsFirstFE is the absolute value of first analystsʹ forecast error calculated as the IBES actual earnings for quarter t less the mean of
the IBES analysts’ first forecast after the quarter t‐1 earnings announcement date scaled by IBES price prior to the earnings
announcement date for quarter t.
Pesscode is an indicator variable equal to one if the first analystsʹ forecast error calculated as the IBES actual earnings for quarter t less the mean of
the IBES analysts’ initial forecast after the quarter t‐1 earnings announcement date scaled by IBES price prior to the earnings
announcement date for quarter t is greater than or equal to zero and is zero otherwise.
AbsFirstFE*Pesscode is the interaction of AbsFirstFE and Pesscode.
Size is the natural log of total assets (Compustat variable ATQ) at the beginning of quarter t.
BM is the book to market ratio at the beginning of quarter t calculated as common stockholders’ equity (SEQQ) divided by market
value of equity (MKVALQ).
DM is the debt to market ratio at the beginning of quarter t calculated as total long term debt (DLTTQ) divided by market value of
equity (MKVALQ).
Whiteʹs heteroscedasticity consistent standard errors are used in calculating the p‐values. Regressions control for clusters of firm
quarter observations from the same firm. The number of observations reflects the 1st and 99th percentiles of the FEAF, FEMF
and FEWF being deleted.
42
Table 6
Accuracy, Information Content and Analysts’ Forecast Revisions of Whisper Forecasts when Analysts are Pessimistic
Panel A: Accuracy of Whisper Forecasts
Pesscode=0 Pesscode=1
Median Absolute Forecast Errors Median Absolute Forecast Errors
Whisper Analysts’ Difference P‐value Whisper Analysts’ Difference P‐value
Full Sample Full Sample
N=437 0.0008 0.0005 <0.001 N=1,218 0.0007 0.0007 0.547
Rank AbsFirstFE=0 (Smallest errors) Rank AbsFirstFE=0 (Smallest errors)
N=50 0.0064 0.0043 0.007 N=275 0.0004 0.0002 0.003
Rank AbsFirstFE=1 Rank AbsFirstFE=1
N=73 0.0020 0.0016 0.089 N=269 0.0004 0.0005 0.001
Rank AbsFirstFE=2 Rank AbsFirstFE=2
N=79 N=274 0.0007 0.0009 0.001
0.0013 0.0010 0.012
Rank AbsFirstFE=3 Rank AbsFirstFE=3
N=102 0.0008 0.0004 0.014 N=220 0.0015 0.0017 0.053
Rank AbsFirstFE=4 (Largest errors) Rank AbsFirstFE=4 (Largest errors)
N=133 0.0004 0.0003 0.004 N=180 0.0037 0.0038 0.924
43
Table 6 (Continued)
Panel B: Information Content of Whisper Forecasts
(4)
Coefficient Estimates (p‐values)
Pesscode*
Intercept Pesscode BM
N=1,960 FEAF FEWF FEWF Size 0.0101 DM R2
0.0044 0.0142 (0.093)
(0.579) (<0.001) 3.9478 ‐1.4655 ‐0.0013 ‐0.0003 0.05
N=1,960 0.0075
(<0.001) (0.294) (0.107) (0.206) (0.916)
0.0039 0.0126
(0.626) (<0.001)
2.8096 2.8874 ‐2.1109 ‐0.0011 ‐0.0003 0.05
(0.003) (<0.001) (0.145) (0.164) (0.892)
44
Table 6 (Continued)
Panel C: Analystsʹ Forecast Revisions
(5)
Management Forecast Whisper and Management
Whisper Forecast Sample Sample Forecast Samples
Coefficent Coefficent Coefficent
Estimate P-value Estimate P-value Estimate P-value
Intercept -0.1370 0.639 -0.0687 0.196 -0.1023 0.034
FWFEPess0
FWFEPess1 33.7852 <0.001 5.0130 0.333
FMFEPess0
FMFEPess1 30.0635 <0.001 21.6840 0.024
Opt
Pess 40.6174 <0.001 26.4450 <0.001
FEAF 27.6653 <0.001
MktRet <0.001 31.2215 0.014
Size 0.1882 <0.001
BM 0.2346 <0.001 -0.2241 0.1254 <0.001
DM -0.1937 <0.001 7.3839 0.261
Analysts 35.8944 <0.001 -0.0017 0.011 -0.2051 <0.001
FSTD -0.0012 0.0033 0.589
R2 -0.0012 0.053 0.0888 0.071 23.0450 <0.001
N 0.0295 0.699 0.0232 0.328
-0.0039 0.214 -0.0003 0.856 -0.0008 0.176
0.0009 0.504 -0.2842 0.505
-0.3010 0.312 0.559 0.0095 0.089
0.335 0.137
817 0.0552 0.160
1,898
0.3370 0.138
-0.0015 0.171
-0.3060 0.323
0.786
305
45
Table 6 (Continued)
Variable Definitions:
Pesscode is an indicator variable equal to one if the first analysts’ forecast error calculated as IBES actual earnings less analysts’ initial
forecast scaled by IBES price prior to the earnings announcement date and zero otherwise.
Analystsʹ forecast error calculated as IBES actual earnings for quarter t less analystsʹ forecasts scaled by IBES price prior to the earnings
announcement date.
Whisper forecast error calculated as IBES actual earnings for quarter t less the whisper forecast scaled by IBES price prior to the earnings
announcement date.
AbsFirstFE is the absolute value of the first analystsʹ forecast error calculated as the IBES actual earnings for quarter t less the mean of the
IBES analysts’ first forecast after the quarter t‐1 earnings announcement date scaled by IBES price prior to the earnings
announcement date for quarter t.
Ret is the 3‐day cumulative raw return centered around the quarter t earnings announcement date from CRSP.
Pesscode is an indicator variable equal to one if the first analysts’ forecast error calculated as IBES actual earnings less analysts’ initial
forecast scaled by IBES price prior to the earnings announcement date and zero otherwise.
FEAF is analystsʹ forecast error calculated as IBES actual earnings for quarter t less analystsʹ forecasts scaled by IBES price prior to the
earnings announcement date.
FEWF is whisper forecast error calculated as IBES actual earnings for quarter t less the whisper forecast scaled by IBES price prior to the
earnings announcement date.
FEWF*Pesscode is the interaction of FEWF and Pesscode.
Size is the natural log of total assets (Compustat variable ATQ) at the beginning of quarter t.
BM is the book to market ratio at the beginning of quarter t calculated as common stockholders’ equity (SEQQ) divided by market value
of equity (MKVALQ).
DM is the debt to market ratio at the beginning of quarter t calculated as total long term debt (DLTTQ) divided by market value of equity
(MKVALQ).
Rev is analysts’ revisions of forecasts calculated as the mean of the IBES analysts’ initial forecast after the quarter t‐1 earnings
announcement date less analysts’ last forecast divided by the absolute value of analysts’ first forecast.
FWFEPess0 is the first whisper forecast error calculated as the mean of the IBES analysts’ initial forecast after the quarter t‐1 earnings
announcement date less the whisper forecast for quarter t scaled by IBES price prior to the earnings announcement date when the
initial analysts’ forecast error calculated as the IBES actual earnings for quarter t less the mean of the IBES analysts’ initial forecast
46
after the quarter t‐1 earnings announcement date scaled by IBES price prior to the earnings announcement date is less than 0.
FWFEPess1 is the first whisper forecast error calculated as the mean of the IBES analysts’ initial forecast after the quarter t‐1 earnings
announcement date less the whisper forecast for quarter t scaled by IBES price prior to the earnings announcement date when the
initial analysts’ forecast error calculated as the IBES actual earnings for quarter t less the mean of the IBES analysts’ initial forecast
after the quarter t‐1 earnings announcement date scaled by IBES price prior to the earnings announcement date is greater than or
equal to 0.
FMFEPess0 is the first management forecast error calculated as the mean of the IBES analysts’ initial forecast after the quarter t‐1 earnings
announcement date less the management forecast of earnings for quarter t scaled by IBES price prior to the earnings announcement
date when the initial analysts’ forecast error calculated as the IBES actual earnings for quarter t less the mean of the IBES analysts’
initial forecast after the quarter t‐1 earnings announcement date scaled by IBES price prior to the earnings announcement date is less
than 0.
FMFEPess1 is the first management forecast error calculated as the mean of the IBES analysts’ initial forecast after the quarter t‐1 earnings
announcement date less the management forecast of earnings for quarter t scaled by IBES price prior to the earnings announcement
date when the first analysts’ forecast error calculated as the IBES actual earnings for quarter t less the mean of the IBES analysts’
initial forecast after the quarter t‐1 earnings announcement date scaled by IBES price prior to the earnings announcement date is
greater than or equal to 0.
Opt is an indicator variable equal to one if the first analystsʹ forecast error calculated as the IBES actual earnings for quarter t less the
mean of the IBES analysts’ initial forecast after the quarter t‐1 earnings announcement date scaled by IBES price prior to the earnings
announcement date for quarter t is in the lowest quintile and is zero otherwise.
Pess is an indicator variable equal to one if the first analystsʹ forecast error calculated as the IBES actual earnings for quarter t less the
mean of the IBES analysts’ initial forecast after the quarter t‐1 earnings announcement date scaled by IBES price prior to the earnings
announcement date for quarter t is in the highest quintile and is zero otherwise.
FEAFt‐1 is analystsʹ forecast error in quarter t‐1.
MktRet is the contemporaneous market return in quarter t from Compustat (MKRTXQ).
Analysts is the number of analysts used to calculate the mean of the IBES analysts’ initial forecast after the quarter t‐1 earnings
announcement date.
FirstSTD is the standard deviation around the mean of the IBES analysts’ initial forecast after the quarter t‐1 earnings announcement
date.
Whiteʹs heteroscedasticity consistent standard errors are used in calculating the p‐values. Regressions control for clusters of firm quarter
observations from the same firm. The number of observations reflects the 1st and 99th percentiles of the FEAF, FEMF and FEWF
47
being deleted.
48